A code is a coherent set of symbols plus the rules needed to structure a message. for example, a language code consists essentially of list of words.
We can't transmit our mental images, ideas, information, feelings, emotions etc directly to another person. We have to translate or encode our thoughts in such a way that other can receive and interprets what we think.
Codes that we use to communicate
Verbal :- all the words, clauses and sentences which we use in speech and writing
Prosodic :- all about punctuation
Paralinguistic:- like a language but not language
Kinesic :- use of bodily movement during communication
Standing features :- features related with appearance, orientation , distance
Understanding Human Language
Language is a tool of communication. We express our ideas, views, and thoughts through language. It is a structured system of communication used by humans, based on speech and gesture, sign or often writing.
Language is the most important tool of communication invented by human civilization. Language helps us share our thoughts, and understand others. It’s hard to overestimate the importance of language for our lives. Every time we speak, we do it with a particular purpose. Sometimes we want to deliver a message, or express our feelings. We use language to ask for help, or just to say a joke.
Functions of language
1. Communication: language is here to allow people to communicate. We use language to express our thoughts.
2. The Ideational function: it allows human to give and represent the word around then in good manner.
3. The interpersonal function: it allows people to communicate wand establish social relations. And these are some of its sub-functional.
4. The informative function: to share information and knowledge
5.Directive function:
The expressive/emotive function:
According to Micheal Clyne there are four main functions of language.
1. It is the most important medium of human communication
2. It is a means of identification.
3. It is a means of intellectual development.
4. It is an instrument of action.
Language Variety
There are three main variety of language.
Register
Dialect
Accent
Register :-
Register is commonly defined as a speech used by a particular group of people, usually sharing the same field of study, job, occupation, and interest. It does not tell anything about the speaker's or the user's geographical origin or social background but reflects the situation in which the speech event rakes place. A particular register distinguishes itself from other speech varieties because of technical terms used in it and distinctive style of using it. So, register is sometimes understood as the style variation of language use. The example of register can be the language used in engineering, the language used in sports, the language used in formal program, the language used in informal party, and so on.
It is defined as the way a speaker uses language differently in different circumstances. We think about the words we choose, our tone of voice, even our body language. We probably behave very differently chatting with a friend than we would at a formal dinner party or during a job interview. These variations in formality are known as register.
It is a style of speaking or writing. Registers vary because the language is used for different purposes, in different contexts and for different audiences. We commonly recognize registers because of their specialized vocabulary and grammar.
Dialect :-
It is form of a language that is spoken in a particular area. It is a regional or social variety of a language distinguished by pronunciation , grammar, or vocabulary. It is differ from standard variety of a language. It is associated with a particular region. To state the obvious, speaker from different geographical regions speak English rather differently.
eg: Nepali language spoken in Kathmandu is different from the language which is spoken in eastern Nepal. The language which is spoken by high class family is different from low class family. Even within UK the English is not same. It differs from region to region. There are American English, British English, Australian English etc.
Accent :-
Accent is a distinct way of pronouncing a language, especially one associated with a particular country, area, or social class. It is a style of pronunciation. It is the way we sound when we speak. It varies regionally.
For example the standard American English pronunciation of the words 'Car' and 'Park' is KAR and PARK whereas many native speaker in UK drop ' r ' when it is not followed by vowel and pronounce the words as KA and PAK.
Language Features
The most important features of English language are :
Expanding and developing vocabulary :-
Many new words are being created in English language. It is said that 5400 new words are created each year. Anew word is created in every 98 minutes. New expressions are appearing all the time in various ways.
Multiple Meanings for words :-
A wealth of words with multiple meaning exist in English language. Technically every word has multiple meanings. The meaning is determined by the context.
Example :- I hope her dog doesn't bark when I knock the door.
The tree bark is rough to the touch.
The word 'set' has 58 uses as a noun. It has 126 uses as a verb and 10 uses as an adjective.
Variety in pronunciation :-
The English language has more sounds than many others. Words are pronounced in different ways. This can be a particular problem for many language learners, especially when we find that many spellings and pronunciation do not match. This difference can be caused by changing fashion and the variation in dialect.
college, love etc I read a book.
Flexible Syntax :-
Arrangement of words and phrases to create well formed sentences in a language. It is the grammatical arrangement of words in a sentence. English language has flexible syntax The rules for forming sentences is not stable. It changes.
to + ing form of verb.
s+v+o
Speaking versus Writing
The purpose of all language is to communicate - that is, to move thoughts or information from one person to another person. Mainly there are two types of communication skill. Spoken and written. The differences between spoken and written are given below.
Differences in Structure and Style
We usually write with correct grammar and in a structured way. We organize what we write into sentences and paragraphs. We do not usually use contractions in writing (though if we want to appear very friendly, then we do sometimes use contractions in writing because this is more like speaking.) We use more formal vocabulary in writing (for example, we might write "the car exploded" but say "the car blew up") and we do not usually use slang. In writing, we must use punctuation marks like commas and question marks (as a symbolic way of representing things like pauses or tone of voice in speaking).
We usually speak in a much less formal, less structured way. We do not always use full sentences and correct grammar. The vocabulary that we use is more familiar and may include slang. We usually speak in a spontaneous way, without preparation, so we have to make up what we say as we go. This means that we often repeat ourselves or go off the subject. However, when we speak, other aspects are present that are not present in writing, such as facial expression or tone of voice. This means that we can communicate at several levels, not only with words.
Durability
One important difference between speaking and writing is that writing is usually more durable or permanent. When we speak, our words live for a few moments. When we write, our words may live for years or even centuries. This is why writing is usually used to provide a record of events, for example a business agreement or transaction.
Speaker & Listener / Writer & Reader
When we speak, we usually need to be in the same place and time as the other person. Despite this restriction, speaking does have the advantage that the speaker receives instant feedback from the listener. The speaker can probably see immediately if the listener is bored or does not understand something, and can then modify what he or she is saying.
When we write, our words are usually read by another person in a different place and at a different time. Indeed, they can be read by many other people, anywhere and at any time. And the people reading our words, can do so at their leisure, slowly or fast. They can re-read what we write, too. But the writer cannot receive immediate feedback and cannot (easily) change what has been written.
Non Verbal Communication
The Non-Verbal Communication is the process of conveying meaning without the use of words either written or spoken. In other words, any communication made between two or more persons through the use of facial expressions, hand movements, body language, postures, and gestures is called as non-verbal communication.
Nonverbal communication, also called manual language, is the process of sending and receiving messages without using words, either spoken or written.
What Are Types of Nonverbal Communication?
Nonverbal communication types include facial expressions, gestures, paralinguistics such as loudness or tone of voice, body language, proxemics or personal space, eye gaze, haptics (touch), appearance, and artifacts.
Types of Nonverbal Communication
Facial Expressions
The human face is extremely expressive, able to convey countless emotions without saying a word. And unlike some forms of nonverbal communication, facial expressions are universal. The facial expressions for happiness, sadness, anger, surprise, fear, and disgust are the same across cultures.
Facial expressions are responsible for a huge proportion of nonverbal communication.1 Consider how much information can be conveyed with a smile or a frown. The look on a person's face is often the first thing we see, even before we hear what they have to say.
Eye contact
Since the visual sense is dominant for most people, eye contact is an especially important type of nonverbal communication. The way you look at someone can communicate many things, including interest, affection, hostility, or attraction. Eye contact is also important in maintaining the flow of conversation and for gauging the other person’s interest and response.
Gestures
Deliberate movements and signals are an important way to communicate meaning without words.2 Common gestures include waving, pointing, and using fingers to indicate numeric amounts.
In courtroom settings, lawyers have been known to utilize different nonverbal signals to attempt to sway juror opinions. An attorney might glance at his watch to suggest that the opposing lawyer's argument is tedious or might even roll his eyes at the testimony offered by a witness in an attempt to undermine his or her credibility.
These nonverbal signals are seen as being so powerful and influential that some judges even place limits on what type of nonverbal behaviors are allowed in the courtroom.
Paralinguistics
Paralinguistics refers to vocal communication that is separate from actual language. It is like a language but not a language. This includes factors such as tone of voice, loudness, inflection, and pitch.
Consider the powerful effect that tone of voice can have on the meaning of a sentence. When said in a strong tone of voice, listeners might interpret approval and enthusiasm. The same words said in a hesitant tone of voice might convey disapproval and a lack of interest.
A cold tone of voice might suggest that you are actually not fine, but you don't wish to discuss it. A bright, happy tone of voice will reveal that you are actually doing quite well. A somber, downcast tone would indicate that you are the opposite of fine and that perhaps your friend should inquire further.
Body Language and Posture
Posture and movement can also convey a great deal of information.
While these nonverbal behaviors can indicate feelings and attitudes, research suggests that body language is far more subtle and less definitive than previously believed.
Proxemics
People often refer to their need for "personal space," which is also an important type of nonverbal communication.5 The amount of distance we need and the amount of space we perceive as belonging to us is influenced by a number of factors including social norms, cultural expectations, situational factors, personality characteristics, and level of familiarity.
The amount of personal space needed when having a casual conversation with another person usually varies between 18 inches to four feet. On the other hand, the personal distance needed when speaking to a crowd of people is around 10 to 12 feet.
Eye Gaze
The eyes play an important role in nonverbal communication and such things as looking, staring and blinking are important nonverbal behaviors. When people encounter people or things that they like, the rate of blinking increases and pupils dilate. Looking at another person can indicate a range of emotion including hostility, interest, and attraction.
People also utilize eye gaze as a means to determine if someone is being honest.6 Normal, steady eye contact is often taken as a sign that a person is telling the truth and is trustworthy. Shifty eyes and an inability to maintain eye contact, on the other hand, is frequently seen as an indicator that someone is lying or being deceptive.
Haptics
Communicating through touch is another important nonverbal behavior. There has been a substantial amount of research on the importance of touch in infancy and early childhood. Touch can be used to communicate affection, familiarity, sympathy, and other emotions.
Touch can used as a way to communicate both status and power.7
Sex differences also play a role in how people utilize touch to communicate meaning.
Women tend to use touch to convey care, concern, and nurturance. Men, on the other hand, are more likely to use touch to assert power or control over others. Handshaking kissing are the other examples of touching.
Appearance
Our choice of color, clothing, hairstyles, and other factors affecting appearance are also considered a means of nonverbal communication. It convey our attitude. Research on color psychology has demonstrated that different colors can evoke different moods. Appearance can also alter physiological reactions, judgments, and interpretations.
Just think of all the subtle judgments you quickly make about someone based on his or her appearance. These first impressions are important, which is why experts suggest that job seekers dress appropriately for interviews with potential employers.
Artifacts
Objects and images are also tools that can be used to communicate nonverbally. On an online forum, for example, you might select an avatar to represent your identity online and to communicate information about who you are and the things you like.
People often spend a great deal of time developing a particular image and surrounding themselves with objects designed to convey information about the things that are important to them.
Uniforms, for example, can be used to transmit a tremendous amount of information about a person. A soldier will don fatigues, a police officer will wear a uniform, and a doctor will wear a white lab coat. At a mere glance, these outfits tell people what a person does for a living.
Nonverbal communication plays an important role in how we convey meaning and information to others, as well as how we interpret the actions of those around us.
The important thing to remember when looking at such nonverbal behaviors is to consider the actions in groups. What a person actually says along with his or her expressions, appearance, and tone of voice might tell you a great deal about what that person is really trying to say.
Importance
What you communicate through your body language and nonverbal signals affects how others see you, how well they like and respect you, and whether or not they trust you. Unfortunately, many people send confusing or negative nonverbal signals without even knowing it. When this happens, both connection and trust in relationships are damaged,
If you want to communicate effectively, avoid misunderstandings, and enjoy solid, trusting relationships both socially and professionally, it’s important to understand how to use and interpret body language and improve your nonverbal communication skills.
Contradiction
Non-verbal signals can be contradictory to what is being said. At those times, non-verbal signals are true mostly. For instance, when you ask someone and he/she says that they are fine but are crying or having sad expressions. Contradiction in verbal and non-verbal communication is also sometimes important to know emotions of the people involved.
Importance of Non – verbal message
Communication is very important as people spend about 75 % of their waking hours communicating of which about 80 % happens non-verbally by understanding and sending non-verbal cues. Failure to act or silence is also a way of communication, but the only difference is that results you get are not as you intend. Actions are not always so parallel to words spoken.
Thoughts, ideas, emotions and feelings are shared by people with expressions and movements. Even environmental factors can be taken as non-verbal communication. Wordless communications are mostly true and are not faked. Verbal and non-verbal communication occurs simultaneously.
People interpret messages according how we react, listen, look, etc. at the time of communicating. Things like if we care for something or not and if we are reacting as required or not. When verbal and non-verbal signals do not match, it creates distrust, unclear message, misunderstandings and confusion. Non-verbal communication is more impactful than verbal communication.
Non verbal communication can't avoided
Communication is unavoidable because it is impossible to not communicate. ◦ we are communicating constantly even when we do not intend to communicate. We communicate by the way we sit or move, by the way we speak, by what we wear, by we actions…. Even when we sleep in class, we’re communicating that we are bored or that we don’t care. So we cannot avoid sending non-verbal signals. Even the purposeful avoidance of contact by one or both parties sends a signal that they do not wish to communicate. Eye contact, a smile or a handshake all signal varying degrees of willingness to communicate.
Much non – verbal communication is culture - bound
Culture is arts, ideas, customs, tradition and social behavior of particular group of people or society.
It is the way of life of a group of people – the behavior, beliefs, values, and symbol that they accept, generally without thinking about them, and are passed along by communication and imitation from one generation to next generation.
Nonverbal communication is culture bound. It reflects values and norms of culture. When we see the American flag on someone's hat or t-shirt, we know that that symbol represents the cultural value of freedom in the United States. The symbol represents the Constitution, the style of government, the world power our nation has, and everything that American's stand behind as a collective culture. When that symbol is burnt, torn or destroyed, many American's become upset because the destruction of this powerful symbol represents the destruction of our core values: freedom of speech, government by the people/for the people, freedom of religion, etc.
In many situation in British and American culture, failure to 'look a person in the eye' is interpreted as shiftiness whereas in many African and Hispanic cultures, averting eyes is a mark of respect for a person of higher status. Similarly, the American 'OK' hand sign has a vulgar meaning in other countries as diverse as Brazil and Greece. Non verbal behavior reflects dominant cultural themes. For example, the Japanese tend to avoid direct eye contact.
Some of the nonverbal communication differences in different cultural are:
Eye Contact
Western cultures mostly consider eye contact to be a good gesture. It shows attentiveness, confidence and honesty. Other cultures such as Asian, Middle Eastern, Hispanic and Native American do not take it as a good expression. It is taken as a rude and offensive expression.
Unlike in Western cultures taking it as respectful, other do not consider it that way. In Eastern cultures women should especially not have eye contact with men as it shows power or sexual interest. In some cultures, whereas, gazes are taken as a way of expression. Staring is taken as rude in most cultures.
Gestures
Gestures such as thumbs up can be interpreted differently in different cultures. It is taken as “Okay” sign in many cultures whereas it is taken as a vulgarism in others like Latin American cultures and in Japan some even take it as money.
Some cultures take snapping fingers to get the attention of a waiter as alright whereas some take it as disrespect and very offensive. Showing feet is taken as offensive in some Middle Eastern cultures. Some cultures take pointing fingers as insulting too. In Polynesia, people stick out their tongue to greet people which is taken as a sign of mockery in most of other cultures.
Touch
Touches are taken as rudeness in most cultures. Shaking hands is considered to be acceptable in many. Similarly, acceptability of kissing, hugs, and many other touches are different in different cultures. People in Asia are more conservative in these types of non-verbal communication.
Patting head or shoulder also has different meanings in different cultures. In some Asian cultures patting children’s head is very bad signal as head is taken to be sacred. Middle Eastern countries take touch between people from opposite genders is taken as bad character.
Where and how you are touched or touch changes the meaning of touch. So, you must be careful when you visit a new place.
Body Movement and Posture
People receive information or message from body movements. It shows how people feel or think about you. If a person does not face you while talking to you can mean that the person is nervous or shy. It might also mean that the person doesn’t like to talk to you. Other body movements like coming to sit near or far can also show confidence, power or trying to control the environment.
Postures like sitting straight or slouched also show the mental condition of the person. Hands in pocket also shows disrespect in different cultures. For example, sitting with crossed legs is considered offensive in Ghana and Turkey.
Facial Expressions
Face shows feelings, attitudes and emotions. The degree of facial expressions are determined by cultures. People from United States show emotions more than their Asian counterparts.
Facial expressions are shown to be similar all over the world, but people from different cultures do not show it in public. The meanings of these are commonly acknowledged everywhere. Too much expression is taken to be shallow in some places whereas in some it is taken as being weak.
Paralanguage
How we talk also constitutes of what we communicate. For example, vocal tones, volume, rhythm, pitch, etc. speak more than what words express. Asian people control themselves from shouting as they are taught not to from childhood.
They are known as vocal qualifiers. Vocal characterizations like crying, whining, yelling, etc. change the meaning of the message. Giggling is taken as a bad gesture in some cultures. Many other emotions are shown by vocal differences while all of them are included in paralanguage.
Physical Space (Proxemics)
People from different cultures have different tolerance for physical distance between people. In Middle Eastern culture people like to go near to others to talk while in others people might get afraid if anybody does so.
Even Europeans and Americans do not have that much acceptance on the breach of physical distance and less acceptance for it among Asians. People have specific personal space which they do not want intruded. In some cultures, even close physical contact between strangers is acceptable.
Importance of Nonverbal Communication in Everyday Business situation
Because business often involves frequent human interaction, understanding the elements of nonverbal communication can be an enormous benefit in terms of working with colleagues, competitors, clients and potential clients.
Knowledge of nonverbal communication in business plays two roles. Managers use nonverbal communication to effectively lead other employees and team members. And team members in the business, whether they realize it or not, use nonverbal cues to communicate information to individuals outside the business, whether they’re clients, competitors or colleagues in a complementary industry.
Nonverbal communication encompasses numerous modes of expression. Physical examples include posture, gestures, eye contact, touch, physiological responses (such as clammy hands or a sweaty brow) and manner of movement. Clothing and adornment choices can also be a form of nonverbal communication.
A person's appearance is often taken as an indicator. It tells us not only person's attitude but also of the organization's attitude to the people he or she communicates with. Thus a waiter in nondescript, dirty clothes sends a negative message about himself and the organization. One study has even shown that overweight people have trouble getting job offers. Clothing can have a significant effect on whether a person is employed, makes a sale or is believed by those with whom he or she communicates. So many organizations provide uniforms to ensure that employees project an appropriate image. Almost all airline employees who are in contact with customers have a uniform of some sort. This is intended to convey an image of discipline, reliability and orderliness to reassure passengers.
Dress has also a cultural dimension and can sometimes be a source of discrimination. Certain group signal their affiliation by clothes. Examples are the turban of Sikhs and the yarmulkes of certain Jewish groups. Certain minority groups have their own dress codes, which may clash with prescribed codes. As dress can be a source of miscommunication and friction in organization. So management should develop a sensible policy which should be reviewed regularly.
In business making the "right" eye contact never involves staring at someone or having a fixed gaze. To make eye contact, look directly into the other persons' eyes for 4-5 seconds. Be sure to blink normally, and nod or shift your head from time to time during a conversation. Mimicking the facial expressions of the person talking (i.e., showing concern or smiling) also helps to support appropriate eye contact. A frozen stance and tense face seem more like staring than contact.
Almost universally, looking into someone else's eyes for more than a few seconds before smiling or otherwise changing your facial expression. Blinking fast and frequently can be associated with feeling nervous or uncomfortable; be sure to gauge your blink rate and watch how the person you are looking at is responding.
Posture may be very important in business situation. It is usually seen as a strong indicator of a person's attitude to the situation and audience. In high stake situations such as job interviews, the interviewee in unlikely to create good impression with an over-relaxed posture. So keep our back straight. We should avoid rounding our shoulders forward and keep our shoulder relax and back. We have to place our elbows in right position so that they form an angle of 90-100 degrees. Keep our knees at a height of our hip. Leave our legs relaxed.
Anthropologist Edward Hall coined the word “proxemics” to describe phenomena like territoriality among office workers. And it was he who first noted the five zones in which people feel most comfortable dealing with one another.
The intimate zone (0 to 45 cm or 0 to 18 inches) is reserved for family and loved ones. Within this zone we embrace, touch or whisper. This close contact is appropriate only for very personal relationships.
The close personal zone (about half a metre or 1.5 to two feet) is the “bubble” most people in North America like to keep around us. This zone is used for interactions among friends or familiar and trusted business partners.
A far personal zone (just under or over a metre or two to four feet) is for interactions we prefer to conduct “at arms length” and in this zone we can communicate interest without the commitment of touching.
The social zone (between 1.5 and 3.5 metres or four to 12 feet) is most appropriate for the majority of most daily business interactions. It is where we interact with new business acquaintances or at more formal social affairs.
The public zone (over 3.5 metres or 12 feet) is mostly used for public speaking.
The amount of space required to feel comfortable varies from individual to individual. People who don’t like being touched will tend to “keep their distance” from others. People who touch others while talking will want to get close enough to do so.
Space can also vary depending on the amount of trust in a relationship. A general rule is: The greater the distance, the lower the level of trust. We also make assumptions about relationships based on zones. If we see two people talking at a distance of around just over half a metre (two feet) from each other, we assume they are engaged in the kind of conversation only possible between those who know and trust each other. So, their spatial relationship becomes part of what is being communicated.
Gender plays an important role too. Men who don’t know each other well tend to keep a greater distance between them than women who have just met.
And, of course, the comfortable distance between participants varies with culture. In North America, most business relationships begin in the social zone. As the relationships develop and trust is formed, both parties may subconsciously decrease the distance to more personal zones. But if one of the parties moves too close too soon, it can result in a communication breakdown.
We have also seen managers standing uncomfortably close to employees in order to emphasize their status in the organization.
Not a good idea.
Scientists agree that people’s territorial responses are primitive and powerful. And a mistake here can trigger a truly deep-seated response. When someone comes too close in an undesirable way, it triggers a physiological reaction in the other person – as heart rate and galvanic skin responses increase. The other person then tries to restore the “proper” distance by looking away, stepping behind a barrier (desk, chair, table), crossing their arms to create a barrier, pulling back to create space, or tucking in their chins as an instinctive move of protection. They may even rub their neck so that an elbow protrudes sharply toward the invader.
Getting too close is an especially improper business move in circumstances where workers, colleagues or clients are in danger of feeling emotionally or physically threatened by the invasion on their personal space. Anyone who oversteps space boundaries is perceived as rude, aggressive or socially clueless.
So keep your distance. Respecting another person’s space can help you build rapport with your colleagues and close sales with your clients.
Corporate language :-
It is a words or visual that our company uses to communicate internally and externally. In Nepal Nepali is the corporate language in many companies.
We make judgments about people who are communicating to us based on various features of their behaviours: their accent, dialect, appearance. Organizations can take some steps to eliminate what he calls unconscious stereotyping where people make unconscious judgments based on certain language features in a message. For example, if we have a pre-set opinion that has a northern accent is lazy then we see anyone with that accent as lazy. So we must have guidelines to adopt a communication style which would encourage positive attitude among the workforce. The guidelines are :-
-We should identify linguistic feature which would create the desired impression.
-We should identify key audience group and decide which linguistic features are important to each group.
-Give training to employees to follow the guidelines and monitoring how they are being used.
-We should use technical and business jargon very carefully and always explain.
-Develop a language strategy
-Management should use third person rather than first person pronoun.
-Use more formal or official language
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