Chapter 3 - Business Communication Full Notes | Intercultural Communication

Chapter - 3

Intercultural communication

Intercultural communication refers to the communication between people from two different cultures. It is also Known as cross-cultural communication.
Intercultural communication is a discipline that studies communication across different cultures and social groups, or how culture affects communication. It describes the wide range of communication processes and problems that naturally appear within an organization or social context made up of individuals from different religious, social, ethnic, and educational backgrounds. In this sense it seeks to understand how people from different countries and cultures act, communicate and perceive the world around them. Many people in intercultural business communication argue that culture determines how individuals encode messages, what medium they choose for transmitting them, and the way messages are interpreted. With regard to intercultural communication proper, it studies situations where people from different cultural backgrounds interact. Aside from language, intercultural communication focuses on social attributes, thought patterns, and the cultures of different groups of people. It also involves understanding the different cultures, languages and customs of people from other countries. Intercultural communication plays a role in social sciences such as anthropology, cultural studies, linguistics, psychology and communication studies. Intercultural communication is also referred to as the base for international businesses. There are several cross-cultural service providers around who can assist with the development of intercultural communication skills. Research is a major part of the development of intercultural communication skills. Identity and culture are also studied within the discipline of communication to analyze how globalization influences ways of thinking, beliefs, values, and identity, within and between cultural environments. Intercultural communication scholars approach theory with a dynamic outlook and do not believe culture can be measured nor that cultures share universal attributes. Scholars acknowledge that culture and communication shift along with societal changes and theories should consider the constant shifting and nuances of society. The study of intercultural communication requires intercultural understanding, which is an ability to understand and value cultural differences. Language is an example of an important cultural component that is linked to intercultural understanding. Intercultural communication is in a way the 'interaction with speakers of other languages on equal terms and respecting their identities'. 

Stereotyping
A stereotyping is a generalization about a group of people based on their group membership. It is a concept or general statement on the characters of a particular group of every member of that group. It is a thought or belief that may or may not accurately reflect reality. Stereotype beliefs are rigid, unresponsive to reality, and generally resistant to change. For example Gurkhas are brave. Some stereotypes have been very stable over time, but that may reflect a stable social context  
Stereotypes exist of different races, cultures or ethnic groups. Although the terms race, culture and ethnic groups have different meanings, we shall take them to mean roughly the same thing at the moment.
The most famous study of racial stereotyping was published by Katz and Braly in 1933 when they reported the results of a questionnaire completed by students at Princeton University in the USA.
They found that students held clear, negative stereotypes – few students expressed any difficulty in responding to the questionnaire.
Most students at that time would have been white Americans and the pictures of other ethnic groups included Jews as shrewd and mercenary, Japanese as shrewd and sly, Negroes as lazy and happy-go-lucky and Americans as industrious and intelligent.  

Stereotype may be positive or negative
A positive stereotype refers to a subjectively favourable belief held about a social group. Common examples of positive stereotypes are Asians with better math ability, African Americans with greater athletic ability, and women with being warmer and more communal.  As opposed to negative stereotypes, positive stereotypes represent a "positive" evaluation of a group that typically signals an advantage over another group. As such, positive stereotypes may be considered a form of compliment or praise. 
Social groups typically are associated with both positive and negative stereotypes. For example, women are positively stereotyped as warm but negatively stereotyped as weak; Asian-Americans are positively stereotyped as competent but negatively stereotyped as cold; Black Americans are positively stereotyped as athletic but negatively stereotyped as unintelligent. An individual targeted by a positive stereotype associated with their social group may assume that the stereotyper also believes they possess the negative stereotypes associated with the group. The negative stereotype that is assumed to be held by the stereotyper depends on to what social group the positive stereotype references. In a study by Siy & Cheryan (2016), Asian-American men were either exposed to a positive stereotype about their race (e.g., "Asians are ambitious") or their gender (e.g., "Men are ambitious"). Asian men that were positively stereotyped based on their gender were more likely to believe that negative gender stereotypes (e.g., aggressive, dominant) were also being applied to them than those who were only targets of positive racial stereotypes. In a similar manner, Asian men that were targets of positive racial stereotypes were more likely to believe that negative racial stereotypes (e.g., bad at driving, bad at English) were also being applied to them.  Another examples of negative stereotype are old are incompetent. College professor are absent minded. 

Analysing culture : Basic concept 
Culture has been defined in various ways.  the definition of culture is differ form one discipline to another discipline. There are different views on culture. some views on culture are given below.
According to Collier culture is defined as a historically transmitted system of symbols, meaning and norms.
According to Gudykunst, culture is the system of knowledge that is shared by a large group of people.
According to Clyne culture is an ensemble of social experience, thought structures. expectations, and practices of action, which has the quality of a mental apparatus.
This brings in the idea of a community which can be a whole nation or a small group. There is also the idea of sub-group within the large community. These cultures within a culture are referred to as subcultures. Sub cultures may have very different sources of identity. For example, in South Africa the two most important cultural determinants are language and ethnic identity.
The everyday reality is that organizations are becoming more multicultural in two senses : workforces are becoming more diverse, and organizations are more likely to communicate with customers and clients from different cultures. In addition, many company are operating internationally. So they are facing the challenge of adapting to local cultures while still maintaining their international image. Another intercultural complication is that even where we have common institutions or ideas, the perception of these by different communities may be different.  

Cultural relativism 
Cultural relativism is a theory that attempts to explain an idea that no culture is superior to any other culture and that all people's perspectives are biased by their own cultural background. Generally, it is the opinion that all cultures are of equal value and equality to each other, therefore, there is no one culture is inferior to any other.
According to this belief we can't judge the cultural practices of other societies and that we should let them do as they please. We have right to freedom of thought, which means that every human being has the right to believe in what they want to believe. No person should judge other's beliefs because they'll just influence others to so the same.
The less extreme view is that if we are to understand another culture we need to compare it, but not judge it, with reference to other culture, usually our own. It is important that we should not take our own culture as the standard by which other cultures are judged.  We need to develop tolerance. The proponents of clotral relativism also tend to argue that the norms and values of one culture should not be evaluated using the norms and values of other. We should understand a culture on its own terms not to make judgments using the standards of one's own culture. The goal of this is to promote understanding of cultural practices that are not typically part of one's own culture.  

Ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrism is the tendency to look at the world primarily from the perspective of one’s own culture. Part of ethnocentrism is the belief that one’s own race, ethnic or cultural group is the most important or that some or all aspects of its culture are superior to those of other groups. Some people will simply call it cultural ignorance.
Ethnocentrism often leads to incorrect assumptions about others’ behavior based on our own norms, values, and beliefs. In extreme cases, a group of individuals may see another culture as wrong or immoral and because of this may try to convert, sometimes forcibly, the group to their own ways of living. War and genocide could be the devastating result if a group is unwilling to change their ways of living or cultural practices.
Ethnocentrism may not, in some circumstances, be avoidable. We often have involuntary reactions toward another person or culture’s practices or beliefs but these reactions do not have to result in horrible events such as genocide or war. In order to avoid conflict over culture practices and beliefs, we must all try to be more culturally relative.

Norms
Norms are social values, rules or standards and appropriate behaviours within a culture. The term norm can be used in different ways with different interpretations. Firstly, it can be used to describe what is normal or usual behavior in some community or culture. Secondly it can be used to set out an ideal or standard to which , it is thought, behavior ought to conform, or which some legislating authority lays down.
In first sense, norms are the agreed‐upon expectations and rules by which a culture guides the behavior of its members in any given situation. Of course, norms vary widely across cultural groups. Americans, for instance, maintain fairly direct eye contact when conversing with others. Asians, on the other hand, may avert their eyes as a sign of politeness and respect.
When we talk about ideals or standards, we can also think about these at different level. For example, we can consider the traditional customs of a particular community, or the moral attitudes of a community or social group, or the manner and customs of a community or social group.

Members of a culture must conform to its norms for the culture to exist and function. Hence, members must want to conform and obey rules. They first must internalize the social norms and values that dictate what is “normal” for the culture; then they must socialize, or teach norms and values to, their children. If internalization and socialization fail to produce conformity, some form of “social control” is eventually needed. Social control may take the form of ostracism, fines, punishments, and even imprisonment.

Attitudes and beliefs
Attitudes are likes or dislikes. they are cognitive states. They are expressed in statements such as 'I like Mohan' or I don't like modern art.  Attitudes are mental states, and they are not directly observable. We can determine someone's attitudes only from their own statements or from their behavior.

A belief is an attitude that something is the case, or that some proposition about the world is true.  The term "belief" to refer to attitudes about the world which can be either true or false.  To believe something is to take it to be true; for instance, to believe that snow is white is comparable to accepting the truth of the proposition "snow is white". However, holding a belief does not require active introspection For example, few carefully consider whether or not the sun will rise tomorrow, simply assuming that it will. Moreover, beliefs need not be occurrent (e.g. a person actively thinking "snow is white"), but can instead be dispositional (e.g. a person who if asked about the color of snow would assert "snow is white") 

Dimensions of culture
Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Theory, developed by Geert Hofstede, is a framework used to understand the differences in culture across countries and to discern the ways that business is done across different cultures. In other words, the framework is used to distinguish between different national cultures, the dimensions of culture, and assess their impact on a business setting and types of Organizations.
Culture varies among four dimensions
a) Individualism-collectivism
b) Power distance
c) Uncertainty avoidance
d) Masculinity-femininity

Individualism-collectivism
This refers to the strength of the ties that people have to others within their community.
Individualism  indicates weak interpersonal connection among those who are not part of a core "family." Here, people take less responsibility for others' actions and outcomes. Individuals are expected to take care of only themselves and their immediate families.
In a collectivist society, however, people are supposed to be loyal to the group to which they belong, and, in exchange, the group will defend their interests. The group itself is normally larger, and people take responsibility for one another's well-being.   If there is a conflict between individual feelings and group needs, then we will be expected to meet the group requirements.

Power Distance Index (PDI)
This dimension expresses the degree to which the less powerful members of a society accept and expect that power is distributed unequally. The fundamental issue here is how a society handles inequalities among people.
People in societies exhibiting a large degree of Power Distance accept a hierarchical order in which everybody has a place and which needs no further justification. In societies with low Power Distance, people strive to equalities, the distribution of power and demand justification for inequalities of power.

Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI)
This dimension describes how well people can cope with anxiety.
Hofstede defines uncertainty avoidance as the extent to which the members of a certain culture feel threatened by certain or unknown situation. In a society with strong or high uncertainty avoidance, we are likely to find many rules and regulations which ensure that people know exactly what to do in as many situations as possible.    In societies that score highly for Uncertainty Avoidance, people attempt to make life as predictable and controllable as possible. If they find that they can't control their own lives, they may be tempted to stop trying. These people may refer to "mañana," or put their fate "in the hands of God."
People in low UAI-scoring countries are more relaxed, open or inclusive.
Bear in mind that avoiding uncertainty is not necessarily the same as avoiding risk. Hofstede argues that you may find people in high-scoring countries who are prepared to engage in risky behavior, precisely because it reduces ambiguities, or in order to avoid failure.

Masculinity Versus Femininity (MAS)
This refers to the distribution of roles between men and women. Men and women  are expected to behave very differently in different culture. However this dimension is not about sex roles. High cultures masculinity shows typically value, aggressive, ambitious and competitive behavior of women.  In masculine societies, the roles of men and women overlap less, and men are expected to behave assertively. Demonstrating our success, and being strong and fast, are seen as positive characteristics.
In feminine societies, however, there is a great deal of overlap between male and female roles, and modesty is perceived as a virtue. Greater importance is placed on good relationships with your direct supervisors, or working with people who cooperate well with one another.
The gap between men's and women's values is largest in Japan and Austria, with MAS scores of 95 and 79 respectively. In both countries, men score highly for exhibiting "tough," masculine values and behaviors, but, in fact, women also score relatively highly for having masculine values, though on average lower than men.

Cultural effects on communication in the workplace.
Culture influences business communications by increasing the relevance of cultural knowledge and understanding. Workplaces are increasingly more diverse. Business communication is more likely to include contact with people from different cultures and with companies in different countries. Business organizations incorporate the norms and values of their own. They are employing workers from different cultural backgrounds. There are many aspects of culture which affect business which may not be understood and accepted by the  entire workforce.  These include :-
- history
- experience with and attitudes towards institutions
- traditions and customs
- experience with and attitudes towards technology and the workplace
- arts and religion 
- patterns of recreation and use of time.

Language
Our main concern is English language. English is a native  language in many western countries. It has become a global language. It is a lingua franca (link language) of business, science, education, politics and pop music. The use of English is growing as it is reinforced by technological change such as World Wide Web. English has been adopted by many non-English organizations as their international language. However, we must not forget the linguistic diversity in many cultures. For example, south Africa is linguistically complex as it has eleven official languages and four major indigenous black language. Besides that, there are minor languages and dialects. There are also substantial minorities who use other African, European, and Asiatic languages such as Portuguese and Hindi. The language situation is in a state of flux because of changes that have taken place since the 1994 constitution came into effect. 
Language is both the means of communication and the carrier of culture. So there can be fear that adopting English as a  common language of communication will lead to the so called hegemony of English. This is not just a local attitude. It must be considered in the formulation of both national and business language polices. 
There are general points which arise out of the general  of English as a global language of communication.
1. If English is the common language of communication, then it cease to be the sole property of English and the United States. The Englishes of the countries that have adopted English must be considered equally valid and acceptable dialects. 
2. Many people are happy to use English as a common language of communication but are not interested in it as a carrier of English culture.  

The English language as the language of Business
English is the leading international language for business. It is the most popular language globally, and this automatically makes it a dominant language in the business world, as it allows companies to reach the largest number of potential customers. English has a very different status in some countries. It is the dominant language for all purposes in United States, Britain, Australiia, New Zealand, etc. In India, Singapore, Malaysia, and Nigeria, it has some official status. It is used as a typical language for international communication as in Japan, Korea or Taiwan. Global English is a more or less standard English which is used for science, technology and business.  There are significant differences in the way that English is used in these different context which have implication of  communication.  
Moreover, remember that cultural differences go beyond differences in ethnicity and places of origin. They can arise from class inequalities, generational gaps, or various personal backgrounds. Two people that belong to different generations often have the same difficulties to understand each other as two people from the opposite parts of the world. 
The most practical way  a forward is for organizations to take accont of the existing research and adopt a systematic problem-solving approach. The solution of the problems lie in the five main areas:
Making people aware of the problem.
Taking a realistic approach to the problem
Developing as appropriate corporate culture.
Develop positive and constructive attitude
Manage cultural diversity in an organization

a) Difference in punctuation 
b) Code – switching
c) Different norms for turn taking
d) Different norms for format
e) Grammatical differences
f) Style differences
g) Difference in dialect and accent
h) Difference in language function
i) Written and spoken language differences 
j) Phonological aspects
k) Paralinguistics
l) Other non-verbal codes   

How intercultural barriers can be removed
People from different values, cultures and backgrounds have to deal with issues of intercultural communication. There are certain barriers that come across intercultural communication. Barriers such as prejudice, anxiety, ethnocentrism, language, and assumption of similarity are most significant ones to consider.
These barriers are significant and have to be removed to make cross-cultural communication effective. For this purpose, a solution for cross-cultural communicators is that individuals must attain a basic understanding of each others’ cultures and thoughts. This will reduce the impact of the interfering barriers that come across while engaging in a cross cultural interaction.  Here are the  solution to the problems of intercultural barriers.
Making people aware of the problem
We need to make people aware of the concept  of cultural relativism and the dangers of ethnocentricism. Once people realize that the other countries have different value systems, there is a sound basis of communication. We should discuss these differences which will lead to a greater understanding of different attitudes.
Developing an appropriate corporate culture
Management should develop an inclusive corporate culture with the consultation of the constituent groups. It must interact with staff from different culture to avoid some ethinocentricism. Otherwise organizations may face problems in cross-cultural communication.  

Taking a realistic approach to the problem 
Each organization will have its own set of problems. They should try to conform all cultural differences. There is the need to emphasis on the need to recognize and accommodate cultural differences rather than the common needs and aspirations of people within the work situation. Management should aim for an even handed fair approach which leads to the developing of constructive attitudes and a shared corporate culture. Once the various groups in an organization have identified the differences that cause difficulties in communication, they are in a position to identify the problems within the organization. Thus the  organization would come to appreciate that they can provide a solution that will function in their work environment . They can develop a corporate culture that all employees can accept and identify with.

Managing cultural diversity in an organization 
(How can we manage cultural diversity in an organization?)
Here are some tips that help on how to manage cultural differences in the workplace.
1 – Teamwork
It is important to have an open mind towards the new culture, embrace teamwork activities and sharing of tasks rather than focus on individual differences. See other people’s opinion as an opportunity to expand your horizons. Find  how to build your teamwork skills.

2 – Model the right behaviour
Everyone in the workplace should lead by example as well as embrace and respect diversity. Put harmony and common sense before being right and use a sense of humour and/or a positive approach. Do not take things to the personal side, sometimes people are just having a bad day or are going through a difficult situation.

3 – Awareness
A good way to get to build a healthy work environment is to celebrate cultural differences and make everyone aware of your co-workers’ perspectives, habits and way of life. Learning a new language might be a good start to get along with your colleagues.

4 – Communication
The best way to practice effective communication in a multi-cultural environment is by keeping an open mind, have some knowledge of cultural differences, practice active listening (getting used to different accents) and watch your nonverbal communication as well your voice tone. Kindness and empathy are much appreciated in this context.

Management responsibility for intercultural communication
The importance of intercultural communication in the workplace can not and should not be undermined. It plays an important role in the functioning of an organization and affects the final output too. It is the responsibility of the management to improve intercultural communication in the business organization. Organization must set up effective consultation procedures.  There are some areas in business which may have cultural assumption built into them.

company policy
Company should formulate corporate policy to improve cross cultural communication through genuine consultation and negotiation. Management should maintain a positive attitude towards employees regarding culture. It should understand the concept of diversity in the workplace. Employees should be given education on other culture. A person who is new to a culture, may fear interaction with other employees. It is the job of the organization to accept such person as the part of organization.

Training
Training programmes often have a built-in culture bias. Thus it is necessary to see that training programmes are based on the real entry standards of participant rather than on any preconceived ideas.

Industrial and staff relations
Industrial relations polices can have very different fundamental principles. Western models are usually based on culture of  and US industry, reflecting the hierarchy of supervision with a gradation of status and privilege for each level. Some organizations have as many as thirteen levels in the hierarchy. But in Japanese industry goes more for a team approach, with fewer levels in the hierarchy. Thus in the field of industrial relations there is a need to adapt the systems to the corporate culture of the organization.  

What should management do to improve intercultural communication in the workplace?
1. Be aware of nonverbal misinterpretations 
We send and receive non-verbal messages through our body language, facial expressions, and eye contact. Even clothing and furniture style can communicate an intended or unintended message. 

2. Speak slowly
Even if English is the common language in a cross-cultural situation it’s not a good idea to speak at your normal conversational speed. Modulating your pace will help, as will speaking clearly and pronouncing your words properly. This does not mean that you speak at a snail’s pace which can be seen as both annoying and patronising.

3. Keep it simple
In a cross-cultural conversation, there’s no need to make it harder for both of you by using big words. Choose simplicity over complexity in cross-cultural communication – check for an understanding of meanings.

4. Assumption of similarities
The invisible aspects of our culture lead us to assume our communication style and way of behaving is how everyone communicates and behaves. When they act like us we think they are right, or we don’t give it much thought. When someone acts differently, we may judge them negatively. Appreciate the differences, embrace the diversity.

5. Practice active listening
Restate or summarize what the other person has said, to ensure that you have understood them correctly, and ask frequent questions. This helps build rapport and ensures that important information doesn’t get missed or misunderstood.

6. Facilitate Meaningful Conversation
A lack of communication in an organization can exacerbate cultural differences between individuals. In an environment that does not allow for open communication, people tend not to speak up or share comments and feedback with one another.   Organization should make an effort to spark conversations on the individual level can be a step in the right direction.
“One of the best ways to get started is to connect with someone who might have a different perspective from your own,” Goodman remarks. “Start a conversation with someone in another department and ask questions, and try to gain a better understanding of their point of view by actively listening.” 
Not only will this allow you to gain an understanding and appreciation for another person’s perspective, but it will also help to build strong relationships in the workplace. Goodman recommends “being curious, asking questions, and being open to different points of view.”
Encouraging meaningful interactions also has a significant impact on the overall environment by creating a comfortable space where team members can openly share their thoughts and ideas. 

7. Become Aware
Another important step to improving cross-cultural communication in the workplace is to become more culturally and self-aware. 
On a personal level, you should make an effort to acknowledge your own implicit biases and assumptions that affect the way you interact with others. Although this may be easier said than done, you can start by making a conscious attempt to empathize with your audience and gain a better understanding of their point of view. 
At the organizational level, Goodman recommends starting with an audit of internal communications. Throughout this process, you should be asking how your mission and company values are defined, whether or not they are inclusive, and whether the team’s various cultures have been taken into account. Performing this analysis will give you a good idea of the state of your corporate culture, including areas in your organizational communication strategy that you can improve to better serve your team members and achieve your goals.